Thermoregulation and Physiological Responses to Heat Stress in Poultry: A Comprehensive Review
Authors
-
Vanlalhmangaihsanga
Department of Livestock Production Management, Institute of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan (Deemed to be University), Kalinga Nagar, Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751030, India
- Nanda Kumar Roy Department of Livestock Production Management, Institute of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan (Deemed to be University), Kalinga Nagar, Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751030, India
- Venus Das Department of Livestock Production Management, Institute of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan (Deemed to be University), Kalinga Nagar, Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751030, India
- V. Keerthi Department of Livestock Production Management, Institute of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan (Deemed to be University), Kalinga Nagar, Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751030, India
- N.K. Praharaj Department of Livestock Production Management, Institute of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan (Deemed to be University), Kalinga Nagar, Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751030, India
- Abhijeet Champati Department of Livestock Production Management, Institute of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Siksha ‘O’ Anusandhan (Deemed to be University), Kalinga Nagar, Bhubaneswar, Odisha 751030, India
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.66920/ijps.2026.87.98Keywords:
Heat stress, immune function, physiological response, poultry welfare, thermoregulationAbstract
Heat stress represents a major constraint in poultry production, adversely affecting bird health, productivity and welfare. This review examines the physiological and biochemical consequences of heat stress in poultry, with particular emphasis on its effects on feed intake, egg production and immune competence. It outlines the principal thermoregulatory mechanisms, including conduction, convection, radiation and evaporative heat loss, through which birds maintain thermal homeostasis. In addition, the roles of stress-associated hormones and metabolic adaptations under elevated ambient temperatures are discussed. Collectively, these physiological alterations lead to reductions in feed intake, growth rate, eggshell formation, egg quality and overall performance, while prolonged exposure may result in increased mortality. The evidence reviewed indicates that heat stress constitutes a multifactorial disturbance, involving coordinated disruptions across metabolic, endocrine, immune and behavioural systems.
References
Idoko, A.S., A. Zaharaddeen, N.U. Imam, S. Nura, B. Abdulazeez and H.A. Olaiya et al, 2020. Physicochemical assessment of broiler chickens fed diets supplemented with a mixture of ginger, garlic and cinnamon. J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Manage., 24: 809-814.
Bell, D.D. and W.D. Weaver, 2002. Commercial chicken meat and egg production. 5th ed., Springer US, Boston, MA, ISBN: 9781461352518, 9781461508113. Pages: 1365.
Kampen, M.V., B.W. Mitchell and H.S. Siegel, 1979. Thermoneutral zone of chickens as determined by measuring heat production, respiration rate, and electromyographic and electroencephalographic activity in light and dark environments and changing ambient temperatures. J. Agric. Sci., 92: 219-226.
Yahav, S., 2015. Regulation of body temperature: Strategies and mechanisms. In: Sturkie's Avian Physiology, Scanes, C.G., (Ed.). Academic Press (Elsevier), Cambridge, MA, pp: 869-905.
Abbas, A., M.J. Khan, M. Naeem, M. Ayaz, A. Sufyan and M.H. Somro, 2012. Cation anion Bbalance in avian diet: (A Review). Agric. Sci. Res. J., 2: 302-307.
Stewart, M.A., K. Franks-Skiba, S. Chen and R. Cooke, 2009. Myosin ATP turnover rate is a mechanism involved in thermogenesis in resting skeletal muscle fibers. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 107: 430-435.
Little, A.G. and F. Seebacher, 2013. Thyroid hormone regulates muscle function during cold acclimation in zebrafish (Danio rerio). J. Exp. Biol., 216: 3514-3521.
Rowland, L.A., N.C. Bal and M. Periasamy, 2014. The role of skeletal‐muscle‐based thermogenic mechanisms in vertebrate endothermy. Biol. Rev., 90: 1279-1297.
Alagawany, M., M.R. Farag, M.E.A. El-Hack and A. Patra, 2017. Heat stress: Effects on productive and reproductive performance of quail. World's Poult. Sci. J., 73: 747-756.
El-Kholy, M.S., M.M. El-Hindawy, M. Alagawany, M.E.A. El-Hack and S.A.A. El-Sayed, 2018. Use of acetylsalicylic acid as an allostatic modulator in the diets of growing Japanese quails exposed to heat stress. J. Therm. Biol., 74: 6-13.
Ribeiro, B.P.V.B., T.Y. Junior, D.D.D. Oliveira, R.R.D. Lima and M.G. Zangeronimo, 2020. Thermoneutral zone for laying hens based on environmental conditions, enthalpy and thermal comfort indexes. J. Therm. Biol., Vol. 93. 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2020.102678
Meltzer, A., 1983. The effect of body temperature on the growth rate of broilers. Br. Poult. Sci., 24: 489-495.
Castilho, V.A.R., R.G. Garcia, N.D.S. Lima, K.C. Nunes, F.R. Caldara and F.G. Jacob et al, 2015. Welfare of laying hens in different densities of housing. Rev. Bras. Eng. Biossist., 9: 122-131.
Ferreira, R.A, 2016. Maior Produção com Melhor Ambiente para Aves, Suínos e Bovinos. 3rd ed., Aprenda Fácil, Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil, ISBN: 9788562032318. Pages: 528.
Curto, F.P.F., I.D.A. Naas, D.F. Pereira and D.D. Salgado, 2007. Estimativa do padrão de preferência térmica de matrizes pesadas (frango de corte). Rev. Bras. Eng. Agríc. Ambiental, 11: 211-216.
Abbas, G., S. Mahmood, A.U. Haq and H. Nawa, 2017. Effect of dietary inclusion of sodium bicarbonate on blood profile of caged layers during summer. Pak. J. Agric. Sci., 54: 443-450.
Abdelnour, S.A., M.E.A. El-Hack, A.F. Khafaga, M. Arif, A.E. Taha and A.E. Noreldin, 2019. Stress biomarkers and proteomics alteration to thermal stress in ruminants: A review. J. Therm. Biol., 79: 120-134.
Lara, L. and M. Rostagno, 2013. Impact of heat stress on poultry production. Animals, 3: 356-369.
Bohler, M.W., V.S. Chowdhury, M.A. Cline and E.R. Gilbert, 2021. Heat stress responses in birds: A review of the neural components. Biology, Vol. 10. 10.3390/biology10111095
Abbas, G., S. Mahmood, A.U. Haq and H. Nawaz, 2022. Effect of dietary inclusion of sodium bicarbonate on production performance of caged layers during summer. Pak. J. Zool., Vol. 54. 10.17582/journal.pjz/20190705200740
Charmandari, E., C. Tsigos and G. Chrousos, 2005. Endocrinology of the stress response. Annu. Rev. Physiol., 67: 259-284.
Abbas, G., F. Ahmad, M. Saeed, T. Ayasan, A. Mahmood and A. Kamboh et al, 2019. Effect of dietary inclusion of sodium bicarbonate on digestibility of nutrients and immune response in caged layers during the summer. Braz. J. Poult. Sci., Vol. 21. 10.1590/1806-9061-2018-0915
Kpomasse, C.C., O.E. Oke, F.M. Houndonougbo and K. Tona, 2021. Broiler production challenges in the tropics: A review. Vet. Med. Sci., 7: 831-842.
Kpomasse, C.C., O.M. Oso, K.O. Lawal and O.E. Oke, 2023. Juvenile growth, thermotolerance and gut histomorphology of broiler chickens fed Curcuma longa under hot-humid environments. Heliyon, Vol. 9. 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13060
Rostagno, M.H, 2020. Effects of heat stress on the gut health of poultry. J. Anim. Sci., Vol. 98. 10.1093/jas/skaa090
Farag, M.R. and M. Alagawany, 2018. Physiological alterations of poultry to the high environmental temperature. J. Therm. Biol., 76: 101-106.
Daghir, N.J., 2008. Poultry production in hot climates. 2nd ed., CABI Publishing, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, UK, ISBN: 9781845932589, 1845932587. Pages: 464.
Oguntunji, A.O. and O.M. Alabi, 2010. Influence of high environmental temperature on egg production and shell quality: A review. World's Poult. Sci. J., 66: 739-750.
Yousaf, A., A. Jabbar, N. Rajput, A. Memon, R. Shahnawaz and R. Khalil et al, 2019. Effect of environmental heat stress on performance and carcass yield of broiler chicks. J. World's Poult. Res., 9: 26-30.
Lin, H., H.C. Jiao, J. Buyse and E. Decuypere, 2006. Strategies for preventing heat stress in poultry. World's Poult. Sci. J., 62: 71-86.
Wasti, S., N. Sah and B. Mishra, 2020. Impact of heat stress on poultry health and performances, and potential mitigation strategies. Animals, Vol. 10. 10.3390/ani10081266
Vandana, G.D., V. Sejian, A.M. Lees, P. Pragna, M.V. Silpa and S.K. Maloney, 2020. Heat stress and poultry production: Impact and amelioration. Int. J. Biometeorol., 65: 163-179.
Brinkley, E.S., L. Taylor and B. Sweeney, 2003. Creatures of the air and sea (Birds, sharks and other sea creatures, whales, dolphins, and porpoises). 1st ed., Reader's Digest Children's Boo, London, United Kingdom, ISBN: 0794403530, 978-0794403539. Pages: 192.
Cahaner, A. and F. Leenstra, 1992. Effects of high temperature on growth and efficiency of male and female broilers from lines selected for high weight gain, favorable feed conversion, and high or low fat content. Poult. Sci., 71: 1237-1250.
William Jr., D.W. and R. Meijerhof, 1991. The effect of different levels of relative humidity and air movement on litter conditions, ammonia levels, growth, and carcass quality for broiler chickens. Poult. Sci., 70: 746-755.
Yahav, S. and S. Hurwitz, 1996. Induction of thermotolerance in male broiler chickens by temperature conditioning at an early age. Poult. Sci., 75: 402-406.
Nawab, A., F. Ibtisham, G. Li, B. Kieser, J. Wu and L. An et al, 2018. Heat stress in poultry production: Mitigation strategies to overcome the future challenges facing the global poultry industry. J. Therm. Biol., 78: 131-139.
Chowdhury, V.S., S. Tomonaga, S. Nishimura, S. Tabata and M. Furuse, 2012. Physiological and behavioral responses of young chicks to high ambient temperature. J. Poult. Sci., 49: 212-218.
Richards, S.-A., 1970. Physiology of thermal panting in birds. Ann. Biol. Anim. Biochim. Biophys., 10: 151-168.
Bhawa, S., J.C. Morêki and J.B. Machete, 2023. Poultry management strategies to alleviate heat stress in hot climates: A review. J. World's Poult. Res., 13: 1-19.
Charles, D. and A. Walker, 2002. Poultry environment problems: A guide to solutions. 1st ed., Nottingham University Press, Nottingham, United Kingdom, ISBN: 10: 1897676972, 13: 9781897676974. Pages: 88.
Mujahid, A., N.R. Pumford, W. Bottje, K. Nakagawa, T. Miyazawa and M. Toyomizu et al, 2007. Mitochondrial oxidative damage in chicken skeletal muscle induced by acute heat stress. J. Poult. Sci., 44: 439-445.
Sohail, M.U., M.E. Hume, J.A. Byrd, D.J. Nisbet, A. Ijaz and H. Rehman et al, 2012. Effect of supplementation of prebiotic mannan-oligosaccharides and probiotic mixture on growth performance of broilers subjected to chronic heat stress. Poult. Sci., 91: 2235-2240.
Zmrhal, V., M. Lichovníková and D. Hampel, 2018. The effect of phytogenic additive on behavior during mild-moderate heat stress in broilers. Acta Universitatis Agric. Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis, 66: 939-944.
Maloney, S.K., 1998. Heat storage, not sensible heat loss, increases in high temperature, high humidity conditions. World's Poult. Sci. J., 54: 347-352.
Pawar, S.S., S. Basavaraj, L.V. Dhansing, K.N. Pandurang, K.A. Sahebrao and B.S. Kumar et al, 2016. Assessing and mitigating the impact of heat stress in poultry. Adv. Anim. Vet. Sci., 4: 332-341.
Amaz, S.A. and B. Mishra, 2024. Embryonic thermal manipulation: A potential strategy to mitigate heat stress in broiler chickens for sustainable poultry production. J. Anim. Sci. Biotechnol., Vol. 15. 10.1186/s40104-024-01028-1
Rath, P., N. Behura, S. Sahoo, P. Panda, K. Mandal and P. Panigrahi, 2015. Amelioration of heat stress for poultry welfare: A strategic approach. Int. J. Livest. Res., Vol. 5. 10.5455/ijlr.20150330093915
Mack, L.A., J.N. Felver-Gant, R.L. Dennis and H.W. Cheng, 2013. Genetic variations alter production and behavioral responses following heat stress in 2 strains of laying hens. Poult. Sci., 92: 285-294.
Bhadauria, P., Keshava, P. Mamgai, A. Murai and Y.S. Jadoun, 2021. Management of heat stress in poultry production system. ICAR Agricultural Technology Application Research Institute, Zone-1, Ludhiana141 004 (INDIA). https://www.pashudhanpraharee.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Management-of-Heat-Stress-in-poultry-Production.pdf
Souza-Junior, J.B.F., K. El-Sabrout, A.M.V.D. Arruda and L.L.D.M. Costa, 2019. Estimating sensible heat loss in laying hens through thermal imaging. Comput. Electron. Agric., Vol. 166. 10.1016/j.compag.2019.105038
Ruvio, J.F., L. Schiassi, H.B. Araújo, F.A. Damasceno and T.Y. Junior, 2017. Estimation of heat dissipation in broiler chickens during the first two weeks of life. Braz. J. Agric. - Rev. Agricultura, 92: 248-260.
Pani, P. and N.C. Bal, 2022. Avian adjustments to cold and non‐shivering thermogenesis: Whats, wheres and hows. Biol. Rev., 97: 2106-2126.
Reece, F.N., J.W. Deaton and L.F. Kubena, 1972. Effects of high temperature and humidity on heat prostration of broiler chickens. Poult. Sci., 51: 2021-2025.
Deyhim, F. and R.G. Teeter, 1991. Research note: Sodium and potassium chloride drinking water supplementation effects on acid-base balance and plasma corticosterone in broilers reared in thermoneutral and heat-distressed environments. Poult. Sci., 70: 2551-2553.
Irshad, A., K. Gurunathan, S. Kumar, A. Kumar, A. Kumar and V. Shukla et al, 2013. Factors influencing carcass composition of livestock: A review. J. Anim. Prod. Adv., Vol. 3. 10.5455/japa.20130531093231
Selye, H., 1956. Endocrine reactions during stress. Curr. Res. Anesth. Analg., 35: 182-193.
Siegel, H.S. and M.V. Kampen, 1984. Energy relationships in growing chickens given daily injections of corticosterone. Br. Poult. Sci., 25: 477-485.
Kumari, K.N.R. and D.N. Nath, 2018. Ameliorative measures to counter heat stress in poultry. World's Poult. Sci. J., 74: 117-130.
Selye, H., 1975. Homeostasis and heterostasis. In: Trauma: Clinical and biological aspects, Day, S.B, (Ed.). Springer US, Boston, MA, pp: 25-29.
Sahin, K., O. Kucuk, N. Sahin and M. Sari, 2002. Effects of vitamin C and vitamin E on lipid peroxidation status, serum hormone, metabolite, and mineral concentrations of Japanese quails reared under heat stress (34º C). Int. J. Vitamin Nutr. Res., 72: 91-100.
Sahin, K., N. Sahin and M. Onderci, 2002. Vitamin E supplementation can alleviate negative effects of heat stress on egg production, egg quality, digestibility of nutrients and egg yolk mineral concentrations of Japanese quails. Res. Vet. Sci., 73: 307-312.
Chaudhary, A. and B. Mishra, 2024. Systemic effects of heat stress on poultry performances, transcriptomics, epigenetics and metabolomics, along with potential mitigation strategies. World's Poult. Sci. J., 80: 1017-1053.
Smith, S.M. and W.W. Vale, 2006. The role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in neuroendocrine responses to stress. Dialogues Clin. Neurosci., 8: 383-395.
Maxwell, M.H., P.M. Hocking and G.W. Robertson, 1992. Differential leucocyte responses to various degrees of food restriction in broilers, turkeys and ducks. Br. Poult. Sci., 33: 177-187.
Olanrewaju, H.A., S. Wongpichet, J.P. Thaxton, W.A. Dozier and S.L. Branton, 2006. Stress and acid-base balance in chickens. Poult. Sci., 85: 1266-1274.
Etches, R.J., T.M. John and A.M.V. Gibbins, 2008. Behavioural, physiological, neuroendocrine and molecular responses to heat stress. In: Poultry production in hot climates, Daghir, N.J., (Ed.). CABI, UK, pp: 48-79.
Quinteiro-Filho, W.M., M.V. Rodrigues, A. Ribeiro, V. Ferraz-de-Paula, M.L. Pinheiro and J. Palermo-Neto et al, 2012. Acute heat stress impairs performance parameters and induces mild intestinal enteritis in broiler chickens: Role of acute hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activation. J. Anim. Sci., 90: 1986-1994.
Star, L., E. Decuypere, H.K. Parmentier and B. Kemp, 2008. Effect of single or combined climatic and hygienic stress in four layer lines: 2. endocrine and oxidative stress responses. Poult. Sci., 87: 1031-1038.
Decuypere, E. and E.R. Kühn, 1988. Thyroid hormone physiology in galliformes: Age and strain related changes in physiological control. Am. Zoologist, 28: 401-415.
Hoshino, S., M. Suzuki, T. Kakegawa, M. Wakita and Y. Kobayashi, 1986. Thyroid hormone response to thyrotrophin releasing hormone (TRH) in the sex-linked dwarf chicken. Endocrinologia Japonica, 33: 675-682.
Melesse, A., S. Maak and G.V. Lengerken, 2011. Effects of genetic group × ambient temperature interactions on performance and physiological responses of Naked-neck chickens and their F1 crosses with Lohmann White and New Hampshire laying hens. J. Anim. Feed Sci., 20: 599-612.
Yoshida, N., M. Fujita, M. Nakahara, T. Kuwahara, S.-I. Kawakami and T. Bungo, 2011. Effect of high environmental temperature on egg production, serum lipoproteins and follicle steroid hormones in laying hens. J. Poult. Sci., 48: 207-211.
Quinteiro-Filho, W.M., A. Ribeiro, V. Ferraz-de-Paula, M.L. Pinheiro, M. Sakai and J. Palermo-Neto et al, 2010. Heat stress impairs performance parameters, induces intestinal injury, and decreases macrophage activity in broiler chickens. Poult. Sci., 89: 1905-1914.
Mashaly, M.M., G.L. Hendricks, M.A. Kalama, A.E. Gehad, A.O. Abbas and P.H. Patterson, 2004. Effect of heat stress on production parameters and immune responses of commercial laying hens. Poult. Sci., 83: 889-894.
Sands, J.S. and M.O. Smith, 2002. Effects of dietary manganese proteinate or chromium picolinate supplementation on plasma insulin, glucagon, glucose and serum lipids in broiler chickens reared under thermoneutral or heat stress conditions. Int. J. Poult. Sci., 1: 145-149.
Tanor, M.A., S. Leeson and J.D. Summers, 1984. Effect of heat stress and diet composition on performance of white leghorn hens. Poult. Sci., 63: 304-310.
Prieto, M.T. and J.L. Campo, 2010. Effect of heat and several additives related to stress levels on fluctuating asymmetry, heterophil:lymphocyte ratio, and tonic immobility duration in White Leghorn chicks. Poult. Sci., 89: 2071-2077.
Niu, Z.Y., F.Z. Liu, Q.L. Yan and W.C. Li, 2009. Effects of different levels of vitamin E on growth performance and immune responses of broilers under heat stress. Poult. Sci., 88: 2101-2107.
Cheville, N. and W. Monlux, 1966. Effect of vitamin E deficiency on avian encephalomyelitis in chickens. Am. J. Vet. Res., 27: 1413-1418.
Verma, V.K., S.K. Yadav and C. Haldar, 2017. Influence of environmental factors on avian immunity: An overview. J. Immune Res., Vol. 4.
Santos, M.M., J.B.F. Souza-Junior, J.P.A.F. Queiroz, M.K.O. Costa, H.F.F. Lima and L.L.M. Costa et al, 2019. Broilers’ behavioural adjustments when submitted to natural heat stress and fed different maize particle sizes in the diet. J. Agric. Sci., 157: 743-748.
Toyomizu, M., M. Tokuda, A. Mujahid and Y. Akiba, 2005. Progressive alteration to core temperature, respiration and blood acid-base balance in broiler chickens exposed to acute heat stress. J. Poult. Sci., 42: 110-118.
Borges, S.A., A.V.F.D. Silva and A. Maiorka, 2007. Acid-base balance in broilers. World's Poult. Sci. J., 63: 73-81.
Brugaletta, G., J.-R. Teyssier, S.J. Rochell, S. Dridi and F. Sirri, 2022. A review of heat stress in chickens. Part I: Insights into physiology and gut health. Front. In Physiol., Vol. 13. 10.3389/fphys.2022.934381
Madkour, M., M.M. Aboelenin, O. Aboelazab, A.A. Elolimy, N.A. El-Azeem and M. Shourrap et al, 2021. Hepatic expression responses of DNA methyltransferases, heat shock proteins, antioxidant enzymes, and NADPH 4 to early life thermal conditioning in broiler chickens. Ital. J. Anim. Sci., 20: 433-446.
Nolan, W.F., W.W. Weathers and P.D. Sturkie, 1978. Thermally induced peripheral blood flow changes in chickens. J. Appl. Physiol., 44: 81-84.
Oluwagbenga, E.M. and G.S. Fraley, 2023. Heat stress and poultry production: A comprehensive review. Poult. Sci., Vol. 102. 10.1016/j.psj.2023.103141
Sgavioli, S., E.T. Santos, C.H.D.F. Domingues, D.M.C. Castiblanco, P.H.M. Rodrigues and I.C. Boleli et al, 2023. Broiler behavior: Influence of thermal stress, age, and period of the day. Rev. Bras. Zootecnia, Vol. 52. 10.37496/rbz5220200239
Gbedemah, S.F., F.O. Torgbor and S.K. Kufogbe, 2018. Adaptation strategies of poultry farmers to rising temperature in the greater accra region of Ghana. West Afr. J. Appl. Ecol., 26: 41-55.
Gerken, M., R. Afnan and J. Dörl, 2006. Adaptive behaviour in chickens in relation to thermoregulation. Eur. Poult. Sci., 70: 199-207.
Queiroz, J.P.A.F.D., J.B.F.D. Souza, H.F.F.D. Lima, M.K.D.O. Costa, L.L.D.M. Costa and A.M.V.D. Arruda, 2013. Daily variations in the thermoregulatory behaviors of naked neck broilers in an equatorial semi-arid environment. Int. J. Biometeorol., 58: 1259-1264.
Fahey, A.G. and H.-W. Cheng, 2008. Effects of social disruption on physical parameters, corticosterone concentrations, and immune system in two genetic lines of White Leghorn layers. Poult. Sci., 87: 1947-1954.
Kim, D.-H., Y.-K. Lee, S.-D. Lee, S.-H. Kim and K.-W. Lee, 2021. Physiological and behavioral responses of laying hens exposed to long-term high temperature. J. Therm. Biol., Vol. 99. 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2021.103017
Cahaner, N.D.A, 2001. Genotype-by-environment interaction with broiler genotypes differing in growth rate: 2. The effects of high ambient temperature on dwarf versus normal broilers. Poult. Sci., 80: 541-548.
Mignon-Grasteau, S., U. Moreri, A. Narcy, X. Rousseau, T.B. Rodenburg and T. Zerjal et al, 2015. Robustness to chronic heat stress in laying hens: A meta-analysis. Poult. Sci., 94: 586-600.
Brackenbury, J.H, 1978. Experimentally induced antagonism of chemical and thermal reflexes in the respiratory system of fully conscious chickens. Respiration Physiol., 34: 377-384.
Laver, C.E., 2018. Direct effects of increasing temperature on birds. Master's Thesis. University of Exeter, UK.
Attia, Y.A., R.A. Hassan, A.E.T. El‐Din and B.M. Abou‐Shehema, 2010. Effect of ascorbic acid or increasing metabolizable energy level with or without supplementation of some essential amino acids on productive and physiological traits of slow‐growing chicks exposed to chronic heat stress. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr., 95: 744-755.
Ghazi, S., M. Habibian, M.M. Moeini and A.R. Abdolmohammadi, 2011. Effects of different levels of organic and inorganic chromium on growth performance and immunocompetence of broilers under heat stress. Biol. TrAc. e Element Res., 146: 309-317.
Imik, H., H. Ozlu, R. Gumus, M.A. Atasever, S. Urcar and M. Atasever, 2012. Effects of ascorbic acid andα-lipoic acid on performance and meat quality of broilers subjected to heat stress. Br. Poult. Sci., 53: 800-808.
Star, L., H.R. Juul-Madsen, E. Decuypere, M.G.B. Nieuwland, G.D.V. Reilingh and H.K. Parmentier et al, 2009. Effect of early life thermal conditioning and immune challenge on thermotolerance and humoral immune competence in adult laying hens. Poult. Sci., 88: 2253-2261.
Kim, H.-R., C. Ryu, S.-D. Lee, J.-H. Cho and H. Kang, 2024. Effects of heat stress on the laying performance, egg quality, and physiological response of laying hens. Animals, Vol. 14. 10.3390/ani14071076
Marder, J. and Z. Arad, 1989. Panting and acid-base regulation in heat stressed birds. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Part A: Physiol., 94: 395-400.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Vanlalhmangaihsanga, Nanda Kumar Roy, Venus Das, V. Keerthi, N.K. Praharaj, Abhijeet Champati
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
